Traditional Novels of Cambodia

Prior to the 1930s, all Khmer novels were written in verse. That is not to suggest that Khmers did not write in prose before then; prose was exclusively employed for technical texts, medical treatises, astrology treatises, political and religious treaties, and the translation of Buddhist literature.

Lpaen, or verse-novel, has long been a prominent genre in Khmer literature. French colonists in the 19th century would gather around the village halls in the evenings to listen to a recitation of an lpaen. Recitation is sometimes accompanied by a string instrument. With up to 9,000 stanzas, some of the verse novels are rather lengthy, and they would take at least two nights to recite. Some could be mistaken for epic poems. 

Verse-novels initially appeared in the mid-17th century, with Hang Yont (Mechanical Swan) widely regarded as the first. Since some of these novels were written in the style of Jātaka, which includes the customary preface benediction in Pali to the Buddha, the Dhamma (Buddha's teaching), the Sangha (ordained monks and nuns), and the epilogue comprising the characters' future lives, it was sometimes assumed that the majority of these novels were Jātaka (tales of the Buddha's previous lives). However, the majority of these works had little to do with Buddhism, if any at all. If anything, they had everything to do with Brahmanism, even after Theravada Buddhism had fully superseded Hinduism by the 16th century. In Preah Ko Preah Keo, for instance, the protagonist Preah Ko was the manifestation of Lord Shiva's mount, Nandi the Bull. Several of these stories were folktales retold in poetry form. Vorvong and Sourivong was based on a popular folktale, which itself was based on the adventures of two condemned Khmer princely brothers. 

A typical story began with the birth of a prince. Then the monarch was upset by a "flaw" in the infant prince, or a jealous concubine accused him of some wrongdoing; in Khyan Sankh, the prince was born with a shell connected to him. The prince and his mother were sentenced to execution. But at the last second, the executioner decided to spare mother and child and let them go. The mother and child encountered a powerful sage, who accepted the child as a disciple. The aspiring hero studied martial and magical arts. Later, he set forth on his many adventures in the Himalayas. Along the way, he defeated giants and the semi-divine yaksha, saved a princess or two, married, and inherited a kingdom. Finally, the hero returned to his birthplace with his new army to either seize the crown by force or reconcile with his father. 

The hero fought with both physical and magical means. He traveled by air via a mechanical bird (usually a swan), but his transport wasn’t always reliable. His mechanical bird failed and dropped him in the ocean, often in the middle of a storm. The hero was accompanied by an animal. In Preah Jinavong, the main character Jinavong travels with a mischievous monkey. The horse in Puthhisaen Neang Kang Rei irritably warned the hero not to waste time, or he, the horse, would leave without him. However, the heroines weren't usually the typical damsels in distress. Ket Soryong was a skilled practitioner of both magic and martial arts in Sovannahang. Along with a giant, she had her own adventures, saving the hero from impending death. Kang Rei led her own army in Puthhisaen Neang Kang Rei. In Preah Jinavong, a pregnant Botum Surya traveled alone on a white elephant in search of her husband.

Yaksha, garudas, and giants were not always depicted as uncivilized creatures. They didn't go around snatching princesses or feasting on men. Citra, the giant king in Sovannahang, governed both giants and humans in a benevolent manner. In Khyan Sankh, the hero was brought up as a son by a yaksha. She doted on him. She was saddened when he decided to leave her to look for his biological mother. She gave him three magical gifts and died from a broken heart. The naga king in Sankh Silp Jay was a loving husband to his human wife. Jinavong in Preah Jinavong was raised by the underworld king.

The Gods were involved, too. Lord Shiva granted wishes to various characters. He instructed Vishwakarma, the celestial architect and engineer, to construct splendid palaces for the heroes. Lord Indra often offered the destitute heroines a helping hand. In Moranak Meada, Lord Indra showed the heroine how to transform herself from a sarika bird back into her human form. The lonely young man in Bhogakula Kumar had only a white dog for company; Lord Indra bestowed upon the young man a Himalayan deity as a wife. Magic was used throughout. An ax that was about to come down on the hero’s neck would suddenly turn into a bouquet of flowers. Baby girls were often found in flowers. Baby Kaki was found in a lotus blossom by a sage in Kaki. Oracles were aplenty. They wielded immense power when it came to dream interpretations. In Rajakul, the oracle told the king that the horse wanted to marry the princess. It turned out the horse was a fine man. The oracle in Sudham wanted his own daughter to marry the prince, and while the prince was away, he declared that the prince’s fiancée had to be sacrificed to avert catastrophe.

Some stories did not follow the aforementioned narrative devices and themes. Some dealt with animals. Bejjata is a story about a pair of birds who were threatened by a forest fire. The female would not leave her eggs. She died thinking her male had abandoned her while he was away. Before following her into the fire, the male prayed that they may reunite in their next lives. She was reborn as a princess who spoke to no males. He was a man who taught her how to speak. 

Another story that rejected the traditional formula is Tum Teav, which is a tragic love story about a doomed affair between Tum, a handsome novice monk, and Teav, a beautiful adolescent girl who was “literally” on the cusp of womanhood. Tum Teav is based on a real story. It is believed to have taken place in the late 16th century in Tbong Khmom district, in present-day Kampong Cham province. There are many versions of the story, which were composed by various poets over the centuries. 

These verse-novels remain popular among the general public. Some have been adapted for a variety of entertainment mediums, including ballets, films, folk and classical theaters, songs, comic books, and radio dramas. Sovannahang, Khyan Sankh, and Preah Jinavong are very popular among the ballet repertoires. Tum Teav, probably the most popular of all the verse-novels, is part of the secondary school curriculum.

Stories mentioned above:

Khyan Sankh (Shell Shell) by Min Uk, 1729

Hang Yont (Mechanical Swan) by Yam Punybhaktr, 1668

Sovannahang (Golden Swan) author unknown, mid-17th century

Preah Jinavong (Lord Jinavong) by Hing, 1856

Preah Ko Preah Keo by Kao, 18th century

Vorvong and Sourivong by various authors, 19th century

Puthhisaen Neang Kang Rei, author and date unknown

Sankh Silp Jay by Uk, 1882

Moranak Meada (Mother’s Death) by Uk 1877

Bhogakula Kumar by Kleang Norng, 1804

Rajakul by Varapanna, early 18th century

Kaki by King Ang Duong, 1815

Mea Yoen (Our Uncle) author and date unknown

Bejjata by Dhammapanna Maen, 1858

Sudham author and date unknown. Based on Sudhana Jataka in Pali

Source: The Traditional Literature of Cambodia: A Preliminary Guide by Judith M. Jacob

The Many Facets Of Love

I want to talk about love today. I mean the word “love” in the Khmer language as well as all stages of love according to Khmer tradition. I’ve mentioned before on this page that Khmer society is hierarchical. Social relationships are based on rankings. Within the family unit, rankings are based on birth order. Outside of families, social rankings are based on a variety of factors such as religious piety, age, profession, gender and education. As such, the Khmer language (both written and spoken) reflects these hierarchies. Some words one uses to communicate with a friend are totally different from the words one uses to communicate with a monk, a royal, a senior citizen, or a kid. There are nearly ten different words for I. I’m not even sure I know all the Khmer words for eat. There’re just so many of them. Two different words for uncle, two for aunt, a handful for smell. As a result, the Khmer lexicon is very extensive. On top of that, Khmer is heavily influenced by Sanskrit, which arrived on mainland Southeast Asia along with Hinduism around the 5th century BC. The Sanskrit influence is found in the religious, law, military, science, and royal registers. Having said that, the majority of Sanskrit borrowings are more of a style rather than a necessity. This also applies to Pali, the language of Theravada Buddhism, which came into contact with the Khmer language in the late 14th century. After the mid-19th century, the French influence on the language emerged as well. So you can imagine how bloated the modern Khmer language has become. 

Now let’s get back to love. Surprisingly, there is only one native Khmer word for love, and it’s sralanh.

The word sralanh is generally used more as a verb. 

Khn’om sralanh nak            =          I love you (gender-neutral)

Khn’om sralanh oun/bong sralanh oun           =          I love you (male to female)

Khn’om sralanh bong/oun sralanh bong =          I love you (female to male)

Using it as a noun, sralanh needs a pragmatic particle 

Sechakdei​ sralanh          =       love

Sechakdai sralanh rr’bas khn’om thom cheang chakravar            =      my love is bigger than the universe

Sechakdai sralanh is seldom used in spoken Khmer, instead we use sneah/sneaha to mean love. In both spoken and written form, sneah/sneaha and sechakdai sneah/sneaha can be both used as a noun.

Sneah/sneaha comes from the Sanskrit sneha which means maternal love or affection. In Khmer, sneaha denotes all kinds of love, be it maternal or romantic love.

Sneaha/sechakdai sneah =          love

Roueng sneaha    =       love/romantic affair, love story          

Sneaha yeung          =          our love

Next word is kama, from Kamadeva, the God of Love. Just like the sages of ancient India, in past times, Khmers viewed kama as the first stage of love. Kama means passion or pleasure of the senses, but not necessary of a sexual kind. Overtimes kama has become known as sexual desire. In modern Khmer, kama is mostly used in lyrics, songs and other written literature. 

Kama without true intimacy can leave most of us feeling empty. Emotional connection is needed. To build that connection, sharing of feelings and affections are a must. The result is sanchetna. Sanchetna is what we call romance. It is the next stage of love. From the Sanskrit shringara, sanchetna is the feeling of attraction we get from kama. Modern Khmers use mnosanchetna to denote both romance and sentimental, with mno coming from the Greek by way of French.  

Third is motherly love, maitri, from the Sanskrit maitri. This is compassion for all living beings. A simple kindness toward your neighbor, or charity to a children’s shelter. This is the most selfless form of love. In modern Khmer, maitri means a crush. There is, however, another word derived from maitri that still retains its original meaning. It’s meata. 

The fourth stage is beyond interpersonal love. This is the love of Gods, bhakti. In Khmer, bhakti can be found only in religious liturgy. 

The last stage of love, according to Hindu tradition, is atma prema, self love. In Khmer tradition, the concept of self love is not something we are familiar with. 

Here are a few more native Khmer words and phrases used in association with love

Saamnoup   =          within embrace 

Chet            =          feeling 

Ey = a positive aspirate sound

Saamnoup chet = love 

Saamnoup chet ey/saamnoup chet khn’om ey = my love 

saamnoup chet khn’om = my love 

Prolung     =          soul, essence 

Prolung ey = my love, sweetheart (as an endearment)

There are many more words and phrases dotted all over the contemporary Khmer lexicon. Khmer lyrics and songs are a great way to learn them.

Tum Teav: The Khmer Romeo and Juliet

Tum Teav is a Khmer tragic love story about a doomed affair between Tum, a handsome novice monk and Teav, a beautiful adolescent girl who was “literally” on the cusp of womanhood. Tum Teav is believed to be a real story. It is believed to have taken place in the late 16^th century in Tbong Khmom district, in present-day Kampong Cham province. Some writers refer to Tum Teav as the Cambodian Romeo and Juliet.
The story began in the rice farming district of Ba Phnom, Prey Veng province where Tum, the novice monk, feeling restless, decided to set out to sell bamboo baskets with his friend Pich, another novice monk, for their monastery. Their trip took them toward Tbong Khmom, a prosperous district in the neighboring Kampong Cham province. Along the way, both friends accepted requests from villagers to perform in exchange for food and lodging. Tum, who had a beautiful voice, chanted poetry and Buddhist sutras, while Pich accompanied him with the flute. Before long, Tum’s vocal reputation and Pich’s musical skills spread and words reached Tbong Khmom ahead of their arrival.
At the same time in Tbong Khmom, Teav, the daughter of a wealthy widow, was undergoing Chol Mlop (entering the shade), a rite of passage for young girls to undertake when they reach puberty. Chol Mlop begins at a woman’s first menstrual period. She is in the “shade”, which means the girl is confined to her house for a specified period of time (between three days to six months, depending on how wealthy her family is). During her confinement, the girl is taught etiquette and how to handle household finances and affairs; she is prepared to become a proper woman, wife and mother. At the end of her confinement, the girl is socially accepted as a nubile young woman and is readied for marriage. Our heroine Teav was “in the shade” when Nor, her maid, informed her about Tum and his beautiful, captivating voice. Teav begged her mother to invite the two monks to their home, which her mother agreed. Despite the fact that she was “in the shade” and not allowed to see a man, Teav was pacing back and forth outside the guestroom where Tum was seated, peeping through the crack of the door into the guestroom. By the time Tum finished chanting the dharma, Teav was in love, and she made no secret in showing her face to him throughout his stay at her home. And of course Tum noticed and was smitten. At the end of his stay, Teav asked Nor, who was a little in love with Tum herself, to give her pha-hom (a throw) to Tum as a token of her love.
Once all their bamboo baskets were sold, it was time for Tum and Pich to return to the monastery. During the journey back, deeply missing Teav, Tum decided that he could no longer remain a monk. He told Pich that he intended to ask the abbot of their monastery to disrobe him as soon as they arrived. Being a very good friend, Pich decided to do the same. When they arrived, the abbot rejected Tum’s request and told him to wait until the end of the year because he foresaw death in Tum’s future if he was disrobed then. However, he gave his consent to Pich. Consumed by a strong desire to be with Teav, Tum disrobed himself in the forest.
Tum and Pich returned to Tbong Khmom. The villagers welcomed them back wholeheartedly, Teav’s mother included. She invited them to stay at her home, which they accepted. Using Nor as a lookout, Tum continued his romantic affair with Teav behind her mother’s back. This happened regularly. Tum and Pich made their living by performing together in Tbong Khmom and the surrounding areas. Shortly after, their reputation reached the capital and the King sent for them to come and perform at the palace. The King was impressed with Tum and Pich and asked them to live and work at the palace. Also, it’s important to point out that by then Teav was out of “the shade” and, despite her protest, was betrothed to a son of the governor of Tbong Khmom.
Back in the capital, the King had ordered the palace officials to go out and search for the most beautiful girl in the country to be his royal concubine. As it happened, they found Teav, whom they thought well enough, and brought her to the King. Since this was the King, Teav’s betrothal to the governor’s son was nullified, and again, Teav had no say in the matter.
The King was pleased by Teav’s beauty and sent for Tum and Pich to come and perform for her. Afraid of the King, Teav could not explain her presence to Tum. Tum started singing, first lauding Teav’s beauty and then risked his life by going on to sing about their love affair and then scolded her for forgetting him, choosing money and power over true love. The King was furious and demanded an explanation. Tum confessed that he and Teav were lovers. The King then asked Teav to confirm it, which she did. The King married them right then and there.
Teav’s mother was upset and angry that the two were having an affair behind her back and her daughter was married to this lowly, poor singer. Upon her return to Tbong Khmom, she and the governor agreed to arrange a wedding between Teav and his son. To bring Teav back home for the wedding, her mother sent a letter to Teav asking her to come home, claiming that she was gravely ill. Instead of an ill mother, Teav was greeted by wedding preparations and forced to get ready for the ceremony. Teav was shattered and wrote a letter to Tum to explain the situation. Since this was back in the time when Khmer weddings lasted seven days, Tum and Pich arrived when the ceremony was still underway, with a royal decree in hand to stop the wedding.
Working his way through the wedding crowd, Tum did not use the King’s decree, believing in his own ego, and started to beg Teav, who was under heavy guard, to come out. When Teav couldn’t see him, Tum was sad and angry and started to drink and became drunk. Pich tried but could not stop him. After a while, Tum pushed his way through the guards to go upstairs to Teav’s room. Once there, he implored Teav to prove that she loved him still.
Not knowing about the King’s decree, the governor was furious at Tum’s audacity. He ordered his men to kill Tum. Pich tried to help Tum, but was beaten by the men. They then killed Tum and dumped his body near a bodhi tree not far from Teav’s house. Pich, who was hiding nearby, ran back to tell Nor what had occurred and where to find Tum’s body. Nor immediately told Teav about Tum’s death. Teav rushed to Tum’s body, pulled the knife from his dead body and slashed her own throat. She died on top of her husband’s body. Nor was unable to stop Teav and killed herself after her mistress.
Pich went back to the palace to report to the King. Not knowing that Tum neglected to pass on his decree to the governor, the King was enraged. Feeling his authority was challenged, the King went to Tbong Khmom with his troop. Once there, the King ordered the executions of the governor and Teav’s mother along with their immediate families, including young children. They were buried alive up to their necks in the ground. The guards then took the water buffaloes and yoked them to a large metal harrow and raked over them. Their relatives were made slaves for the next seven generations and those from the surrounding villages within the sounding distance of a gong were taxed in perpetuity.
As stated in the beginning, the tale of Tum and Teav is believed to be real. The events that happened in the story are believed to have taken place in Khmer history. The provinces and towns in the story do exist. The district of Tbong Khmom was noted to have a lot of slaves. Modern residents of Tbong Khmom have preserved items they believe belonged to Teav. Various historical texts over the centuries mentioned the story. According to one text, the Royal Chronicles, King Rea-mea Thipadei (circa 1641-1656), the same name as the King in Tum Teav, had two pages he favored considerably. One was a singer called Ek and another was a flutist called Tum. In Tbong Khmom the tale is known as Teav-Ek.
Teav-Ek was also the title used by Étienne François Aymonier in his translation of the tale. Aymonier was a French linguist who traveled all over Cambodia. His version was based on oral versions. All versions (and there are many) of the story are based on oral versions. These oral versions were performed by professional singers who traveled the country in the 18^th and 19^th centuries. These performances were usually accompanied by chapei dong veng (Khmer long-necked, two-string guitar). Aymonier produced his first translation of the oral versions in 1880 and dated it to the early 18^th century. He later investigated the source of the story by traveling to Tbong Khmom in 1883. The residents told Aymonier that the story was true. He learned that their resentment for being called the descendants of hereditary slaves was the reason it was strictly forbidden to tell the story in Tbong Khmom. For this reason, he was accompanied by French soldiers during his research. He was taken to locations where events in the story were alleged to have taken place. He included the information he gathered during this trip to supplement his second translation of Tum Teav, which was included in his Le Cambodge I, Le Royaume Actuel, published in 1900 and dated it to the mid-18^th century. Various researchers over the years had dated the story to anywhere between the late 16th century to the mid-18th century. Aymonier described the story as “historical drama”. In France the story was denounced by some critics at the time for featuring premarital sex.
In 1900, a version of Tum Teav, authored by a famous poet named Santhor Mok, was published. The work was incomplete. The writing was uneven and the text was not well received by other literary scholars. Shortly after, a palm leaf manuscript by a monk named Venerable Botumthera Som emerged as well. Venerable Som was born in 1852 in the farming village of Kamprau in Prey Veng province (Kamprau is bordering Tbong Khmom). Venerable Som completed his palm leaf manuscript of Tum Teav in September 1915. In 1935 another monk named Venerable Oum copied Venerable Som’s manuscript on a new set of palm leaf sheets. This copy comprised of 1050 stanzas, including a 39-stanza preface in which Venerable Som dated his manuscript and identified himself as the author, which caused a controversy. Most critics believed Santhor Mok should have received credit as well. Nevertheless, Venerable Som’s version was edited and incorporated into lower secondary school curriculum in 1957.
Tum Teav is probably the most popular story in Khmer literature. Except the ballet, the tale has been adapted into every medium imaginable, from comics to movies, from classical theater to folk musical theater, from radio dramas to songs (both pop and folk).
The following stanzas are taken from the text used in secondary school. The text was translated to English by George Chigas in 2005. They cover the scene after Tum returned to Tbong Khmom, following his disrobing.

Stanzas 414-423
Teav: You compare me to a flower,
While you are like a bumble bee
That flies around and spots the flower and enters straight away.
Afterwards, it doesn’t delay and is soon on its way again.
Tum: I am like the lion king,
While Miss Teav is like a large cave.
If the lion king has a place to live,
He will never allow himself to leave.
Teav: I am like a dock,
While you, so charming, are like a boat.
You are quick to park a while, precious one,
Then hurry away without a second thought.
Tum: Oh, I am like a large fish,
While you, young Teav, are like a river.
The fish that has large water swims leisurely from side to side.
Don’t dear! Don’t reject me or be suspicious.
Teav: I am like a tree,
While you are like a sarika bird that perches there every day.
You stop to perch and take shelter,
Then fly off at great speed to go to some other place.
Tum: I am like a tiger,
While you, dear, are like the jungle.
Usually a tiger doesn’t turn away quickly.
He avoids leaving behind his precious forest.
Teav: I am like a tree trunk used as a hive,
While you, handsome sir, are like the bees
That come there to live and fly off one day,
Leaving the tree trunk defiled and useless.
Tum: I am like an elephant,
While you, young lady, are like sugar cane.
Once the elephant tastes the sweetness, he never goes
Far from the sugar cane, dear.
Teav: Oh, dear sir!
Who would not be suspicious
Of the words of a man trying to show off his intelligence?
So don’t tell me not to be suspicious.

As Teav spoke wisely,
Tum had no fear at all. He grabbed Teav’s hand
And kissed her and says, “Oh, my dear,
Do you still doubt me? Do you still not believe how I feel?”

Sources:
Le Cambodge I, Le Royaume Actuel, Étienne François Aymonier (1900)
Tum Teav: A Translation and Analysis of a Cambodian Literary Classic, George Chigas (2005)

Rose of Pailin

At that moment, coming from the East, Lord Surya, mounted on his

crystal chariot pulled by a thousand stallions, skirted Mount Meru,

axis of the world, and went to the West following the circle of the

constellations. When the chariot turned and was hidden by the

enormous mountain, the Lord’s brilliant light dimmed and came

the twilight.

So came the twilight of Vichet’s father but it was the dawn of Vichet’s life.

Vichet, called Chet, is the main protagonist in Kolap Pailin (Rose of Pailin), the

first Khmer prose novel. Kolap Pailin followed the story of Chet, who found

himself orphaned at the beginning of the story when his father passed away.

With a recommendation from the doctor who treated his father, Chet left

Battambang for Pailin, a gem mining town, to seek an employment with

Loueung Ratana Sambat, who operated several mines. Loueung Ratana

Sambat was a widower, who had a single child, a daughter of famed beauty

named Neary. She is the Rose in the “Rose of Pailin.”

Chet found the work as a miner a tiring one, but it’s an honest work and he

was in no way deterred by it. His fellow miners were very fond of him. He

greatly enjoyed the pristine nature of his new environment where the forests,

jungles and wild mountains mingled. But even more, he enjoyed thinking about

Neary even though she was a “pretentious young lady full of haughtiness, but

of great beauty, and she looked like a rose that blossoms by exhaling its

fragrance in the rainy season.”

And pretentious she was, the heroine of the story. Neary treated Chet like a

servant, which he was not. Even when she felt Chet was beneath her, Neary

was drawn in by his character, which could be a little humble at times, and a

little braggart at others. More importantly, she was attracted to his manliness.

As their interactions deepened, both found themselves falling for each other,

but still Chet did not believe that he had any hope, given that his social position

was far inferior to that of Neary’s. However, a time came when Chet

demonstrated his feelings for her during a trip out of town. He fought off robbers

and saved Neary and her father’s lives. He also took a stray bullet during the

fight. Near the end of the story, Chet also saved Neary from an attempted

sexual assault during a home invasion by a group of outlaws. He roused his

coworkers to fight and drive out the criminals. The novel ended with the couple

married and lived happily with many children to follow.

Kolap Pailin is a short story, about 90 pages long in the French edition. It moves

at a brisk pace, but its various characters are wholly fleshed out. The action

scenes contain little distraction. They move the plot along quite smoothly. The

dialogue is engaging. Written entirely in prose in 1936 and published in 1942,

it was considered to be the first modern Khmer novel, breaking from the

traditional verse-novels of the past. Though the writing was quite lyrical at times,

it was written in ordinary language, accessible to people from all walks of life.

And it was staged in a contemporary setting with ordinary characters that

belong to diverse strata of society. It set precedence for other novels to follow.

The author, Nhok Them, was born in 1903 in Battambang province. He studied

at the traditional monastery schools in Cambodia and later in Thailand. At the

age of fifteen, he was ordained as a novice monk but left the monkhood twenty

years later. He spent several years teaching Pali in Bangkok, where he

authored many books in Thai as well. He was involved in the early stage of the

Buddhist Institute in Phnom Penh and edited its literary journal, the

Kampuchea Surya. Nhok Them also wrote curricula for the Buddhist Institutes

in Luang Phabang and Vientiane, Laos. He was considered to be a great

translator of Buddhist Pali literature. He authored two Khmer novels, the

Rose of Pailin and the Malicious Love. Nhok Them perished during the

Khmer Rouge Era.